In the institutional architecture of the Catholic Church, the cardinalate occupies a singular place, between millennia-old tradition and adaptation to contemporary realities. This dignity, which is neither a sacramental order nor a simple honorary function, constitutes one of the pillars of the universal ecclesiastical government. The upcoming conclave of 2025, which will notably see the participation of Cardinal Timothy Radcliffe, a Dominican who has not received episcopal ordination, offers an opportunity to explore the historical, theological, and canonical richness of this institution.

The cardinalate embodies the fruitful tension between permanence and change that characterizes the Catholic Church: rooted in the structure of the ancient Roman clergy, it has evolved over the centuries to become the expression of ecclesiastical universality. Its primary mission, to elect the successor of Peter, is accompanied by an advisory function to the reigning pontiff, in a subtle dialectic between local service and universal dimension.

This article aims to examine the legal foundations of the cardinalate, its traditional tripartite organization, the complex relationship it maintains with the episcopate, and the particular cases that have marked its history. This exploration will naturally lead us to the conclave, that exceptional moment when the College of Cardinals exercises its most emblematic prerogative: giving a new pastor to the universal Church.

I. Foundations and Nature of the Cardinalate

The term "cardinal" finds its origin in the Latin cardinalis, derived from cardo (hinge, pivot), evoking the idea of an essential element around which a larger structure articulates. This etymology perfectly illustrates the pivotal position that cardinals occupy in the Catholic ecclesiastical edifice, at the interface between the universal pastor and the particular Churches.

A Dignity, Not a Sacrament

Contrary to a widespread conception, the cardinalate does not constitute a fourth degree of the sacrament of Holy Orders, alongside the diaconate, the presbyterate, and the episcopate. It is an ecclesiastical dignity, a function of governance and service that progressively institutionalized during the first Christian millennium. This fundamental distinction explains why, historically, men of various ecclesiastical statuses have been able to access this function.

The history of the cardinalate is rooted in the particular structure of the Roman clergy of the early centuries. Around the Bishop of Rome gravitated a presbyterium composed of priests who were titulars of urban churches (the tituli), bishops of surrounding dioceses (the suburbicarian sees), and deacons in charge of charitable works. This local organization became, through a process of progressive universalization, the model of the current Sacred College.

The mission of cardinals crystallized around two essential functions: the election of the Sovereign Pontiff, formalized in the 11th century by Nicholas II (1059), and counsel to the reigning pope. These two dimensions, elective and consultative, form the cardinalate identity to this day.

The Evolution of Access Conditions

Contemporary canon law, heir to a long historical maturation, precisely defines the conditions required to access the cardinalate. The 1983 Code of Canon Law, in its canon 351 §1, stipulates:

"For the promotion to the Cardinalate, the Roman Pontiff freely chooses men who are at least in the order of the presbyterate, outstanding in doctrine, in morals, in piety, and in prudence in practical matters."

This formulation synthesizes several significant evolutions. First, the minimal requirement of the presbyterate, introduced by the 1917 Code, marks a break with a tradition that admitted the appointment of deacons, or even simple laymen. The last non-priest cardinal was Teodolfo Mertel (1806-1899), a jurist of the Papal States, created cardinal-deacon in 1858 when he had only received the diaconate.

Second, the four qualities mentioned – doctrine, morals, piety, and prudence – outline the ideal profile of the cardinal, at once intellectual, spiritual, and pastoral. This qualitative definition, intentionally broad, allows the recognition of diverse forms of ecclesiastical excellence.

A major turning point occurred in 1962, when John XXIII, through the Motu proprio Cum gravissima, established the principle that every new cardinal must receive episcopal ordination. This measure, consistent with the ecclesiology of Vatican II that was to open a few months later, more strongly inscribed the cardinalate in the perspective of episcopal collegiality. However, the same text provided for the possibility of a pontifical dispensation, thus tempering the absolute character of the rule.

This flexibility allows the honoring of exceptional personalities – theologians, confessors of the faith, eminent religious – whose specific vocation would not necessarily accommodate the episcopal charge. Among recent dispensations, we can cite the cases of Jesuit Roberto Tucci (2001), organizer of pontifical trips, exegete Albert Vanhoye (2006), Capuchin preacher Raniero Cantalamessa (2020), or Dominican theologian Timothy Radcliffe (2023).

The ceremony of creating cardinals, the consistory, has both a legal and symbolic dimension. The imposition of the red biretta by the pope, the presentation of the cardinal's ring, and the attribution of a Roman title or diaconia constitute the ritual gestures by which an ecclesiastic formally joins the Sacred College. The purple color, evocative of blood, symbolizes the cardinal's disposition to witness to Christ to the point of martyrdom if necessary, reminding that this dignity is primarily a radical service.

II. The Tripartite Structure of the College of Cardinals

The organization of the College of Cardinals into three distinct orders – cardinal-bishops, cardinal-priests, and cardinal-deacons – constitutes one of the most remarkable and enduring characteristics of this institution. This tripartition, far from being a mere historical curiosity, reflects the very genesis of the cardinalate and retains, despite its largely honorary character today, a profound ecclesiological significance.

Genesis and Historical Development

The origin of this tripartite structure dates back to the first centuries of the Roman Church. Around the Bishop of Rome, three circles of clerics had progressively formed: the bishops of the surrounding dioceses (suburbicarian), the priests responsible for the main urban churches (tituli), and the deacons in charge of charitable works from their diaconias. These three groups, initially functional and territorial, gradually institutionalized to form, from the 11th century onwards, the College of Cardinals as we know it.

The electoral reform of Nicholas II, in 1059, definitively established this tripartite organization by reserving to cardinals alone the right to elect the pope. Over the centuries, as the local Roman dimension faded in favor of a universal representation, the distinction between the three orders has been maintained as a structuring element of the college, both symbolic and legal.

Cardinal-Bishops: Primacy and Presidency

Cardinal-bishops constitute the superior order within the College. Traditionally, they are the titulars of the seven historical suburbicarian sees: Ostia (reserved for the Dean of the College), Porto-Santa Rufina, Albano, Frascati, Palestrina, Sabina-Poggio Mirteto, and Velletri-Segni. These sees, which geographically surrounded Rome, symbolize the close link between the successor of Peter and his first episcopal collaborators.

An important reform took place under Paul VI (1965) with the Motu proprio Ad purpuratorum Patrum. Henceforth, only six cardinals can bear the title of a suburbicarian see, independently of the effective pastoral function of these dioceses, entrusted to other bishops. These are the six most senior cardinals by order of creation, the dean automatically receiving the title of Ostia in addition to the one he already held.

Pope Francis introduced another significant innovation in 2018, by integrating into the order of cardinal-bishops certain patriarchs of the Eastern Catholic Churches, without assigning them a suburbicarian see. This decision recognizes their particular status in ecclesial communion and underlines the universal dimension of the College.

Cardinal-bishops enjoy protocol precedence and exercise specific functions, especially during conclaves and consistories. The Dean of the Sacred College, currently Cardinal Giovanni Battista Re, occupies a particularly eminent role: he presides over the College during the vacancy of the Apostolic See and, if his age permits, poses to the elected the ritual question of acceptance of the pontificate.

Cardinal-Priests: Universality and Pastorality

Cardinal-priests numerically represent the majority of the Sacred College. These are essentially diocesan bishops of large Catholic metropolises around the world: archbishops of Paris, New York, Kinshasa, São Paulo, Sydney, etc. Their presence manifests the universal dimension of the Church and the participation of particular Churches in the central government.

Each cardinal-priest receives the title of a Roman church, called his titulus, thus symbolically perpetuating the primitive organization of the clergy of the Urbs. This link with a specific Roman community reminds us that the cardinalate, having become a universal institution, finds its origin in the local structure of the Church of Rome. The cardinal generally establishes a particular relationship with his titular church, occasionally celebrating there and sometimes contributing to its maintenance or restoration.

If, historically, cardinal-priests exercised specific liturgical functions during papal celebrations, this functional dimension has considerably diminished since the liturgical reform following the Second Vatican Council. The Constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium (1963) and the subsequent revision of liturgical books simplified pontifical ceremonies and blurred the ritual distinctions between the different cardinalice orders. Now, their liturgical role is essentially limited to a question of precedence in processions and arrangement in the choir.

Cardinal-Deacons: Service and Administration

The order of cardinal-deacons, the third component of the College, mainly comprises prelates of the Roman Curia, theologians, diplomats, or administrators. In accordance with the etymology of the diaconate (service), they embody the ministerial and operational dimension of the central government of the Church.

Each cardinal-deacon receives the title of a Roman diaconia, a church or basilica traditionally associated with charitable works. The link with these places evokes the original mission of the seven deacons of the primitive Church, charged with the service of tables and assistance to the needy (Acts 6, 1-6).

A particularity of this order lies in the possibility, for a cardinal-deacon having spent ten years in this condition, to request his elevation to the order of cardinal-priests (optatio). His diaconia can then be elevated pro hac vice (for this time) to the rank of presbyteral title. This potential mobility testifies to the institutional flexibility of the College.

The cardinal-protodeacon, that is, the most senior of the cardinal-deacons by date of creation, assumes a particularly visible ceremonial function: it is he who, from the central balcony of Saint Peter's Basilica, proclaims the Habemus Papam and announces the name chosen by the new elect. This intense media moment constitutes one of the rare occasions when the internal organization of the College of Cardinals is publicly manifested.

Contemporary Significance of an Ancient Structure

If the distinction between the three cardinalice orders retains today a largely protocolar dimension, it remains the bearer of a profound ecclesiological significance. It first reminds us that the cardinalate is rooted in the tripartite ministerial structure of the Church (bishops, priests, deacons), while transcending it as a specific service.

This organization also reflects the diversity of charisms and services necessary for ecclesiastical governance: the episcopal and collegial dimension (cardinal-bishops), the pastoral rootedness in particular Churches (cardinal-priests), and the administrative and theological service (cardinal-deacons). It is precisely this complementarity that allows the College to effectively assist the pope in his universal mission.

Finally, the persistence of this ancient structure, through historical mutations and successive reforms, illustrates the proper genius of Roman Catholicism: integrating necessary innovations without denying its historical foundations, ensuring institutional continuity while allowing adaptation to new realities.

III. The Cardinalate and the Episcopate: A Complex Relationship

The articulation between the cardinalate and the episcopate constitutes one of the most delicate and revealing aspects of contemporary Catholic ecclesiology. If today almost all cardinals are bishops, this convergence is historically recent and theologically complex, revealing the fruitful tensions between Roman tradition and ecclesial universality.

A Fundamental Historical Distinction

For most of the Church's history, the cardinalate and the episcopate represented two distinct dignities, sometimes complementary but never necessarily associated. This distinction was based on a difference in nature and function: the episcopate, rooted in apostolic succession, conferred the fullness of the sacrament of Holy Orders and the pastoral responsibility of a particular Church; the cardinalate, a non-sacramental dignity, primarily concerned assistance to the pope and the election of his successor.

This conceptual separation explains why, for centuries, many cardinals were not bishops – notably cardinal-deacons and some cardinal-priests – while the vast majority of bishops were not cardinals. The institutional balance rested precisely on this distinction, which allowed the pope to surround himself with counselors from different states of life and bearers of diverse charisms.

John XXIII's Reform: An Ecclesiological Turning Point

On April 15, 1962, a few months before the opening of the Second Vatican Council, Pope John XXIII published the Motu proprio Cum gravissima, which marked a decisive turning point in the relationship between the cardinalate and the episcopate. This text established the principle that every new cardinal must receive episcopal ordination, if he does not already possess it.

This decision was part of a profound theological movement, which would find its doctrinal expression in the Constitution Lumen gentium of Vatican II. The affirmation of episcopal collegiality as a structuring element of the universal Church logically called for a revaluation of the link between the cardinalate and the episcopate. If bishops, in communion with the pope, collegially govern the universal Church, it became coherent that the principal counselors and electors of the pontiff fully participate in this collegiality through episcopal ordination.

However, the same apostolic letter provided for the possibility of a pontifical dispensation from this obligation, thus recognizing that particular circumstances could justify maintaining a cardinalate without episcopate. This prudent provision allowed for the preservation of certain specific situations, notably those of religious whose proper vocation might seem difficult to reconcile with the episcopal charge.

Current Canonical Foundations

The 1983 Code of Canon Law confirms this evolution while maintaining the possibility of exceptions. Canon 351 §1 indeed stipulates that non-bishop cardinals "must receive episcopal consecration," but immediately adds that "the Roman pontiff may dispense from this obligation." This balanced formulation testifies to a desire to integrate the cardinalate into the ecclesiology of communion developed by Vatican II, while preserving the flexibility necessary for the diversity of situations and charisms.

Recent pontifical practice illustrates this creative tension. If the vast majority of cardinals created by John Paul II, Benedict XVI, and Francis have received episcopal ordination, each pontiff has also granted significant dispensations, thus recognizing the legitimacy of certain non-episcopal cardinalice vocations.

Profiles and Motivations of Contemporary Dispensations

Analysis of dispensations granted since 1962 reveals several typical profiles, reflecting various pastoral and ecclesiological motives.

A first group concerns religious belonging to orders traditionally reluctant to the episcopate, notably Jesuits and Dominicans. Ignatian spirituality, for example, particularly emphasizes obedience to the pope and unavailability for ecclesiastical honors. Figures such as Jesuit Cardinals Roberto Tucci (2001), Albert Vanhoye (2006), or Karl Josef Becker (2012) illustrate this category, as does the Dominican Timothy Radcliffe (2023). For these men, the dispensation allows reconciling their profound religious identity with the cardinalice service requested by the pope.

A second motive concerns advanced age. Some eminent priests are created cardinals at an age where episcopal ordination would no longer correspond to an effective pastoral reality. The dispensation then avoids a measure that might seem purely formal and devoid of concrete ministerial significance.

A third profile, rarer but significant, concerns "confessors of the faith," those priests who have endured persecution and suffering for their fidelity to the Church. The emblematic case is that of Albanian Cardinal Ernest Simoni, created cardinal in 2016 after having spent nearly thirty years in prisons and forced labor under the communist regime of Enver Hoxha. For these men, the cardinalate constitutes a recognition of their heroic witness, independently of their aptitude or availability for the episcopal charge.

Finally, some dispensations concern theologians or experts whose intellectual contribution to the Church is deemed exceptional. The cardinalate then honors a remarkable doctrinal or pastoral work, without necessarily implying the governmental dimension associated with the episcopate.

The Emblematic Case of Cardinal Radcliffe

The cardinal creation of Timothy Radcliffe, during the consistory of September 2023, particularly well illustrates the complexity of this question. A former Master General of the Order of Preachers (1992-2001), a recognized theologian and charismatic communicator, Radcliffe embodies a Dominican tradition which, without rejecting the episcopate in principle, values intellectual magisterium and preaching more than episcopal jurisdiction.

His creation as a non-bishop cardinal, with explicit dispensation, manifests Pope Francis's will to integrate prophetic voices from specific religious traditions into the College of Cardinals. This gesture is inscribed in an ecclesiology that recognizes the plurality of charisms and the complementarity of vocations in the service of the universal Church.

The planned participation of Cardinal Radcliffe in the 2025 conclave confirms that this dispensation, far from being a simple administrative formality, possesses a profound ecclesiological scope: a priest, not a bishop, will fully participate in the election of the successor of Peter, thus manifesting that the cardinalate, while generally associated with the episcopate today, retains a proper and irreducible theological identity.

Theological and Pastoral Perspectives

The contemporary articulation between the cardinalate and the episcopate reflects a creative tension at the heart of Catholic ecclesiology. On one side, the norm of episcopal ordination for cardinals expresses the collegial dimension of ecclesiastical governance and the sacramental rootedness of authority in the Church. On the other, the possibility of dispensations recognizes the diversity of charisms and the specificity of the cardinalice service, which is not reduced to an extension of the episcopal function.

This tension is not an inconsistency but a richness, allowing the articulation of complementary dimensions: universality and Romanity, episcopal collegiality and Petrine singularity, hierarchical structure and charismatic diversity. The non-bishop cardinal would thus embody, paradoxically, the transcendence of ecclesial service in relation to institutional categories, reminding us that the Spirit blows where it wills and that the Church, while being hierarchically structured, remains primarily a living and diverse communion.

IV. Non-Bishop Cardinals and Conclaves: A Persistent Tradition

The participation of non-bishop cardinals in conclaves, far from being a historical anomaly, is part of a millennial tradition which, despite recent canonical evolution, continues to manifest the specific nature of the cardinalate and its particular relationship with the Petrine ministry.

An Ancestral Practice in Evolution

For most of the Church's history, the presence of non-bishop cardinals in conclaves constituted the norm rather than the exception. Until the 20th century, many cardinal-deacons and cardinal-priests were not ordained bishops, which in no way limited their full participation in the papal election. This situation reflected the original conception of the cardinalate as representation of the Roman clergy in its three traditional components – suburbicarian bishops, titular priests, and deacons – all legitimately involved in the choice of the successor of Peter.

The evolution towards a predominantly episcopal cardinalate occurred progressively, first as a de facto tendency then as a canonical norm from 1962. However, this transformation has never questioned the fundamental right of every cardinal, bishop or not, to participate in the conclave as long as he fulfills the other canonical conditions (notably the age limit of 80 years introduced by Paul VI in 1970).

Significant Examples Through the Ages

The history of conclaves is marked by emblematic figures of non-bishop cardinals who exercised a determining influence on the papal election.

In the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, powerful cardinal-deacons such as Alessandro Farnese (1520-1589) or Scipione Borghese (1577-1633), nephews of popes and influential patrons, actively participated in conclaves without having received episcopal ordination. Their authority proceeded more from their curial position, their political networks, and their proximity to pontifical power than from pastoral jurisdiction.

The modern era knew figures such as Cardinal Teodolfo Mertel (1806-1899), jurist of the Papal States and the last non-priest cardinal of modern history. Appointed cardinal-deacon by Pius IX in 1858 when he was only a deacon, he participated in the 1878 conclave that elected Leo XIII, without ever receiving presbyteral or episcopal ordination.

More recently, several eminent theologians and religious have participated in conclaves as non-bishop cardinals, thanks to the dispensation provided by Cum gravissima. Notably, Jesuit Cardinal Henri de Lubac, a major figure of 20th century theology, present at the 1978 conclave, or Cardinal Roberto Tucci, another Jesuit, who participated in that of 2005.

Cardinal Radcliffe and the 2025 Conclave

The cardinal creation of the Dominican Timothy Radcliffe in 2023, with explicit dispensation from episcopal ordination, is inscribed in this historical continuity while presenting its own characteristics. A recognized theologian, former Master General of his order (1992-2001), and talented communicator, Radcliffe embodies a Dominican intellectual and spiritual tradition that Pope Francis has wished to honor and integrate within the electoral college.

His planned participation in the 2025 conclave thus perpetuates an ancient tradition, while giving it a renewed significance in the post-Vatican II ecclesiological context. It reminds us that the cardinalate, even closely associated today with the episcopate, retains a proper and irreducible identity, linked to its specific function of assistance to the pope and election of his successor.

Theological and Ecclesiological Significance

The presence of non-bishop cardinals in conclaves has a profound theological import, which goes beyond the simple disciplinary or canonical question.

It first manifests the essential distinction between power of order and power of jurisdiction in the Catholic Church. If episcopal ordination confers the fullness of the sacrament of Holy Orders, participation in the central government of the Church and in the papal election falls under another logic, that of hierarchical communion and Petrine service.

This reality also recalls the charismatic and not only institutional dimension of the Church. By allowing men of diverse profiles – theologians, religious, pastors – to participate in the election of the successor of Peter, the Church recognizes that the spiritual discernment which presides over this crucial choice can be enriched by diverse sensibilities and experiences, beyond the sole episcopal ministry.

Finally, the presence of these exceptional figures underlines the sovereign freedom of the pope in the composition of the College of Cardinals. By dispensing certain cardinals from episcopal ordination, the pontiff exercises a prerogative that manifests the personal and not only collegial dimension of his ministry, reminding that the successor of Peter, while being surrounded by the College of Bishops, possesses a proper and singular authority in the Church.

The participation of non-bishop cardinals in conclaves, far from being an anomaly or an anachronistic survival, thus constitutes a significant element of the institutional and theological balance of the Catholic Church. It testifies to a living tradition which, while evolving over the centuries, maintains this fundamental principle: the cardinalate, although today generally associated with the episcopate, remains a specific dignity, whose primary mission – the election of the pope – transcends the ordinary institutional categories of the ecclesiastical hierarchy.

V. Popes Elected Without Being Bishops: A Theoretical Possibility Rooted in History

If the cardinalate can, in certain circumstances, be dissociated from the episcopate, what about the supreme pontificate itself? History and canon law reveal a surprising reality: not only can the pope be elected from among non-bishops, but this situation frequently occurred until a relatively recent epoch, illustrating the institutional flexibility of the Church and the fundamental distinction between papal election and episcopal ordination.

The Canonical Framework: A Theoretical Opening Maintained

Current canon law maintains a possibility that may seem paradoxical at first glance: the successor of Peter, Bishop of Rome and visible head of the Church, can be chosen from among men who are not yet bishops. Canon 332 §1 of the 1983 Code indeed stipulates:

"The Roman Pontiff obtains full and supreme power in the Church by legitimate election accepted by him, together with episcopal consecration. Therefore, one who is already a bishop and is elected Roman Pontiff possesses this power from the moment of acceptance. If the one elected lacks the episcopal character, he is to be ordained a bishop immediately."

This provision clearly establishes that acceptance of the election already confers supreme power on the new pope, even if episcopal ordination remains necessary for the plenary exercise of his charge. This subtle distinction between power of jurisdiction and power of order reflects a complex theology of ministries, where supreme authority in the Church proceeds jointly from legitimate election and sacramental consecration.

Theoretically, any baptized and celibate man (at least in the current discipline of the Latin Church) could therefore be elected pope. In practice, however, since the institutionalization of the Sacred College as an exclusive electoral body, only cardinals have been elected, and more recently, only cardinals who were already bishops.

A Frequent Historical Practice

Pontifical history abounds with examples of popes elected when they were not yet bishops, or even, in some cases, not yet priests. This reality, which may surprise the contemporary observer, testifies to an ancient conception where the Petrine function was not systematically associated with the fullness of holy orders.

During the first Christian millennium, several popes were chosen from among the laity or minor clerics, notably Saint Fabian (236-250), elected when he was a simple faithful, or Saint Agapetus I (535-536), who had not received major orders. These elections, often motivated by the reputation for holiness or the personal qualities of the candidate, took place in a context where the boundaries between ecclesiastical states of life were more fluid than today.

The Middle Ages knew several emblematic cases, the most notable of which is undoubtedly that of Gregory X (1271-1276). Thedaldo Visconti, archdeacon of Liège – thus deacon and not priest nor bishop – was elected at the end of the longest conclave in history (nearly three years). He successively received presbyteral then episcopal ordination before his coronation. A reforming pope, it is precisely he who institutionalized the conclave system to avoid the renewal of such prolonged vacancies.

The Renaissance and the modern era also saw elections of non-bishop cardinals. Leo X (1513-1521), Giovanni de' Medici, was ordained priest only the day before his papal election, at the age of 37. Later, Gregory XVI (1831-1846), a Camaldolese monk and Prefect of Propaganda, had to be consecrated bishop after his election, being only a priest beforehand.

Historical Motivations for These Atypical Elections

Several factors explain the historical frequency of these elections of non-bishop, or even non-priest, popes.

At the ecclesial level, the absence of a theological systematization necessarily linking the pontifical ministry to the episcopate allowed the consideration of other qualities as determining: personal holiness, capacity for governance, diplomatic or theological competence, or even belonging to an influential family.

Political considerations also came into play, especially during periods of strong interaction between temporal and spiritual power. The election of a member of a powerful Italian family (Medici, Farnese) or a compromise candidate between opposing factions could take precedence over his clerical status, which could be "regularized" after the election by the necessary ordinations.

Finally, exceptional circumstances – such as the interminable conclave that led to the election of Gregory X – could lead the cardinals to seek a solution outside their immediate circle, privileging the resolution of a crisis over conformity to usual practices.

Contemporary Perspectives: A Theoretical Possibility, a Practical Improbability

Since John XXIII (1958-1963), all elected popes were already bishops at the time of their election, generally for many years. This evolution reflects the valorization of pastoral and episcopal experience as preparation for the pontifical ministry, as well as the ecclesiology of Vatican II which clearly situates the pope within the episcopal college, as its head and principle of unity.

The probability of a contemporary election of a non-bishop pope thus appears extremely low, for several converging reasons:

First, the current composition of the College of Cardinals, where almost all electors are diocesan bishops or prelates of the Curia having received episcopal ordination, makes the choice of a non-bishop candidate statistically improbable.

Second, post-conciliar ecclesiology strongly values pastoral experience and episcopal ministry as preparation for Petrine service, conceiving the pope primarily as "Bishop of Rome" and eminent member of the episcopal college.

Finally, the considerable mediatization of the contemporary pontifical ministry favors the search for candidates already possessing a public stature and experience of ecclesial leadership, characteristics generally associated with the episcopate.

Nevertheless, the maintenance of the canonical possibility of electing a non-bishop pope testifies to the ecclesiological prudence of the Catholic Church, which avoids too closely linking the Petrine ministry to prerequisites that could limit the freedom of electors or the action of the Holy Spirit. This theoretical opening, even if it no longer materializes in modern practice, reminds us that the successor of Peter is primarily chosen for his aptitude to confirm his brothers in the faith and to serve the unity of the Church, beyond any formal or institutional prerequisite.

VI. The Conclave: A Millennial Ritual Between Tradition and Adaptation

The conclave, the procedure for electing the Sovereign Pontiff, constitutes one of the oldest and most stable institutions of the Western world. Its very name – from the Latin cum clave, "with key," evoking the confinement of electors – reveals its main characteristic: the temporary isolation of cardinals to guarantee the freedom and integrity of their choice. Over the centuries, this ritual has adapted to ecclesiastical evolutions and historical contexts, while preserving its essence: to allow the election of the successor of Peter in a climate of prayer, discernment, and independence.

Genesis and Historical Development

The origin of the modern conclave dates back to the 13th century, in a particularly acute context of crisis. After the death of Clement IV in 1268, the cardinals gathered in Viterbo found themselves unable to agree on a candidate. The vacancy of the Apostolic See lasted for nearly three years, until local authorities, exasperated, decided to lock the cardinals in the episcopal palace and progressively ration their food to force them to a decision.

The cardinal finally elected, who took the name of Gregory X, drew lessons from this traumatic experience. At the Second Council of Lyon (1274), he promulgated the constitution Ubi periculum, which institutionalized the practice of the conclave: henceforth, ten days after the death of the pope, the cardinals would be locked in a closed place, with living conditions progressively hardened until the election.

This procedure, sometimes softened sometimes reinforced by successive popes, has crossed the centuries preserving its fundamental principle: the isolation of electors to guarantee their independence vis-à-vis external pressures and to favor an authentic spiritual discernment.

Contemporary Organization and Legal Framework

The current conclave is mainly governed by the Apostolic Constitution Universi Dominici Gregis, promulgated by John Paul II in 1996 and modified by Benedict XVI in 2007 and Francis in 2022. This fundamental text is inscribed in a multicentury normative tradition, while adapting it to contemporary realities.

The Participants in the Conclave

Only cardinals aged less than 80 years on the day of the beginning of the vacancy of the Apostolic See can participate in the election. This limitation, introduced by Paul VI in 1970 (Ingravescentem aetatem), aimed to guarantee the physical and mental vigor of the electoral body. The theoretical maximum number of electors is fixed at 120, although this figure is regularly exceeded. For the 2025 conclave, about 135 cardinal electors are expected, which will constitute a record number.

This situation does not result from a formal papal dispensation, but rather from the exercise of the pontifical prerogative to create cardinals according to the needs of the Church, independently of theoretical numerical limits. This flexibility testifies to the primacy of the pope in determining the composition of the College of Cardinals.

The Spatial and Temporal Framework

The contemporary conclave takes place mainly in two emblematic places of the Vatican:

The Sistine Chapel, where the actual ballots take place, under Michelangelo's frescoes evoking Creation and the Last Judgment – a grandiose setting that reminds electors of the transcendent dimension of their mission.

The Saint Martha Residence, built under John Paul II, which offers cardinals more comfortable accommodation conditions than the improvised cells of yesteryear, while maintaining the principle of enclosure.

The conclave normally begins between 15 and 20 days after the beginning of the vacancy of the Apostolic See, allowing all cardinals to arrive in Rome and participate in the preparatory "general congregations." These preliminary meetings allow electors to exchange views on the situation of the Church and the challenges of the next pontificate, without however constituting formal "primaries."

Isolation: Principle and Exceptions

The fundamental principle of the conclave remains the isolation of electors from the outside world, guaranteeing their independence. This principle materializes through several practical measures: prohibition of phones, tablets, and other means of communication, electronic sweeping of premises to detect potential listening devices, oath of absolute secrecy under pain of latae sententiae excommunication.

However, as specified in article 44 of Universi Dominici Gregis, this isolation knows some pragmatic exceptions:

• Cardinals can communicate with their dicasteries for urgent matters, after authorization from the particular Congregation.
• In case of serious illness attested by the conclave's physicians, a cardinal can leave the enclosure to receive treatment.
• For any serious reason recognized by the majority of the College, communications with the outside can be authorized.

These provisions illustrate the evolution of a system which, while maintaining its essential principles, adapts to contemporary realities and practical requirements.

The Voting Procedure and the Election

The heart of the conclave lies in the voting procedure, meticulously codified to guarantee both the legitimacy of the result and its spiritual dimension.

The Ballots

Each day of the conclave can include up to four ballots: two in the morning and two in the afternoon. The day begins with a concelebrated Mass at Saint Martha, followed by the recitation of the hymn Veni Creator invoking the Holy Spirit.

In the Sistine Chapel, each cardinal receives a rectangular ballot bearing the inscription Eligo in Summum Pontificem ("I choose as Sovereign Pontiff"), under which he writes the name of his candidate, endeavoring to disguise his handwriting. Then, in a precise protocol order, each elector advances towards the altar, takes an oath ("I call as my witness Christ the Lord who will be my judge, that my vote is given to the one who before God I think should be elected"), and deposits his ballot in an urn.

Three scrutineers, drawn by lot among the cardinals, then proceed to the counting: they first count the ballots, then read aloud the names, while piercing each ballot with a needle at the level of the word Eligo. Three revisers then verify the accuracy of the operations.

The ballots are then burned in a special stove, whose smoke is visible from Saint Peter's Square. A chemical device produces black smoke in case of failure of the ballot, or white when a pope is elected, a signal eagerly awaited by the faithful gathered outside.

The Required Majority and Acceptance

To be elected, a candidate must receive two-thirds of the votes of the cardinals present. This high threshold, maintained despite various reform attempts, aims to guarantee a wide consensus around the new elect.

If, after three days of unsuccessful ballots (i.e., 12 voting rounds), no candidate has reached this majority, a day of pause is observed for prayer and informal exchanges between electors. Then the ballots resume according to a rhythm that may include similar pauses.

Once the required majority is reached, the dean of cardinals or, if he is over 80 years old, the most senior cardinal-bishop by date of appointment (and not the oldest by age), asks the elected candidate if he accepts his designation. For the 2025 conclave, this responsibility would probably fall to Cardinal Pietro Parolin, as the most senior cardinal-bishop by date of appointment, if the current dean, Cardinal Giovanni Battista Re (born in 1934), cannot fulfill this function due to his age.

In case of acceptance, the elect immediately becomes Bishop of Rome and Sovereign Pontiff, even if he is not yet a bishop (in which case he must receive episcopal ordination as soon as possible). He is then asked what name he wishes to take – a tradition dating back to the 10th century, when John XII changed his pagan name of Octavian.

A tradition has it that the newly elected pope gives his red biretta to the secretary of the conclave, implicitly promising to make him a cardinal at a future consistory.

The Announcement to the World

After donning the white pontifical garments in the "Room of Tears" adjacent to the Sistine Chapel, the new pope receives the homage of the cardinals and then proceeds to the central balcony of Saint Peter's Basilica. He is preceded by the cardinal-protodeacon (the most senior of the cardinal-deacons by date of creation) who pronounces the traditional formula: "Annuntio vobis gaudium magnum: habemus Papam!" ("I announce to you a great joy: we have a Pope!"), before revealing the name of the elect and the one he has chosen as pontiff.

The new pope then gives his first blessing Urbi et Orbi (to the City and to the World), marking the effective beginning of his pontificate.

Recent Evolutions and Contemporary Challenges

The conclave, like any living institution, has known significant adaptations over the last decades, reflecting both ecclesiastical transformations and societal evolutions.

One of the most notable modifications concerns the composition of the electoral body. The progressive internationalization of the College of Cardinals, particularly marked under John Paul II, Benedict XVI, and Francis, has transformed what was once a predominantly Italian and European assembly into a true global "senate" of the Catholic Church. This geographical, cultural, and theological diversification enriches the process of discernment while complexifying relational dynamics between electors.

The question of confidentiality, always crucial, has taken on a new dimension in the era of instant communications and surveillance technologies. Electronic security measures have considerably strengthened, and sanctions against violations of conclave secrecy have been reaffirmed by Francis in his amendments to Universi Dominici Gregis.

Finally, the increasing mediatization of pontifical transitions poses an unprecedented challenge. If the conclave itself remains hermetically closed, its environment is now saturated with information, analyses, and sometimes speculation, creating indirect pressure on electors. The balance between the legitimate information of the faithful and the preservation of the serenity of cardinalice discernment constitutes one of the major stakes of contemporary conclaves.

Despite these evolutions, the conclave retains its essential function: to allow the election of the successor of Peter in a climate of prayer, freedom, and spiritual discernment. This millennial ritual, regularly adapted but never fundamentally transformed, testifies to the capacity of the Catholic Church to maintain its fundamental institutions while updating them in the face of the challenges of each era.

Conclusion

The in-depth exploration of the cardinalate and the conclave, through their historical, theological, and canonical dimensions, reveals a remarkably adaptive institution, which has crossed the centuries preserving its essential foundations while evolving according to the needs of the Church and historical contexts. This institutional plasticity, far from being a sign of weakness or inconsistency, on the contrary testifies to a fundamental vitality and a capacity to combine fidelity to tradition and openness to new realities.

The contemporary cardinalate, while now generally associated with the episcopate, retains a proper and irreducible identity. The persistence of the three cardinalice orders – bishops, priests, and deacons –, the maintained possibility of dispensations from episcopal ordination, and the preservation of the exclusive right of papal election, manifest the theological specificity of this dignity. The emblematic case of Cardinal Timothy Radcliffe, who will participate in the 2025 conclave without being a bishop, perfectly illustrates this fundamental distinction and the canonical flexibility that follows from it.

The conclave itself, a millennial elective procedure, demonstrates the same capacity for adaptation: its fundamental principle – the isolation of electors to guarantee a free and spiritual discernment – remains intact, while its practical modalities have evolved to respond to contemporary realities. The increase in the number of electors beyond the theoretical limit of 120, pragmatic accommodations to the principle of absolute isolation, and the growing internationalization of the electoral college testify to this permanent evolution in continuity.

This creative tension between tradition and adaptation reflects an essential characteristic of Catholic ecclesiology: the conviction that institutional structures, while being necessary to the life of the Church, remain at the service of its fundamental mission and must therefore retain a certain plasticity. The cardinalate is not an end in itself, but a service; the conclave is not a simple elective mechanism, but a process of spiritual discernment.

On the eve of the 2025 conclave, this historical and theological perspective reminds us that, beyond the inevitable strategic analyses and media speculation, the election of a new pope remains primarily, for believers, an act of faith in divine providence and in the assistance of the Holy Spirit. The secular ritual of the conclave, with its burned ballots and white smoke, symbolizes this profound conviction: at the very heart of the most elaborate institutional mechanisms of the Church, it is always mystery that, ultimately, predominates.